Effect of COVID-19 pandemic on the food supply chain

Efeito da pandemia COVID-19
na cadeia de abastecimento alimentar

Geraldo Magela Jardim Barra

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7186-6344

Doutor em
Administração. Universidade Federal de São João del-Rei
(UFSJ) – Brasil. [email-masked]

Caroline Miriâ
Fontes Martins

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0697-7499

Doutora em Administração. Universidade
Federal de São João del-Rei (UFSJ) – Brasil. [email-masked]

RESUMO

O
objetivo deste estudo foi analisar o papel das instituições no posicionamento
do Brasil para reduzir as incertezas no abastecimento de alimentos relacionadas
ao COVID-19. Pretendemos demonstrar que a segurança alimentar deve estar
integrada com a segurança alimentar. Esta pesquisa é um estudo exploratório dos
efeitos do COVID-19 nos sistemas alimentares usando dados qualitativos. Este
estudo demonstra que políticas públicas e privadas realizadas em nível
internacional são necessárias para evitar novas crises sanitárias decorrentes
de zoonoses. A integração de políticas públicas e privadas requer as seguintes
estratégias: construir instituições fortes, fortalecer o sistema de pesquisa e
inovação agropecuária, políticas públicas para agricultura sustentável, leis
rígidas de controle sanitário, aprimorar as cadeias de frio da produção de
proteína animal e incentivar o modelo de integração vertical em cadeias de
proteínas animais. Este esquema analítico pode ser aplicado no contexto dos
sistemas agroindustriais a partir de uma perspectiva institucional, permitindo
pesquisar o efeito das crises nas cadeias de abastecimento agroalimentar, como
é o caso da pandemia de COVID-19, bem como contribuir para a sua prevenção.
Constatou-se que as demandas para prevenir novas pandemias são uma consequência
da adoção efetiva de controles sanitários padronizados, coordenação de sistemas
agroalimentares e políticas públicas.

Palavras-chave: COVID-19; segurança alimentar; segurança alimentar.

ABSTRACT

This
study’s objective was to analyze institutions’ role in positioning Brazil to
reduce uncertainties in food supplies related to COVID-19. We intend to
demonstrate that food security must be integrated with food safety. This
research is an exploratory study of COVID-19’s effects on food systems using
qualitative data. This study demonstrates that public and private policies
carried out at the international level are needed to avoid new health crises
originated by zoonoses. The integration of public and private policies requires
the following strategies: building strong institutions, strengthening the
agricultural research and innovation system, public policies for sustainable
agriculture, strict sanitary control laws, enhancing cold chains of animal
protein production, and encouraging the vertical integration model in animal
protein chains. This analytical scheme can be applied in the context of
agro-industrial systems from an institutional perspective, allowing research
into the effect of crises on agri-food supply chains, as in the case of the
COVID-19 pandemic, as well as contributing to its prevention. It was found that
demands to prevent new pandemics are: an outgrowth of the effective adoption of
standard sanitary controls; coordination of agri-food systems; and public
policies.

Keywords: COVID-19, food security, food safety

Recebido
em 07/02/2022.  Aprovado em 10/07/2022.
Avaliado pelo sistema double blind peer review. Publicado conforme normas da ABNT.

https://doi.org/10.22279/navus.2022.v12.p01-11.1775

1 INTRODUÇÃO

In December 2019, China reported Coronavirus’
emergence in Wuhan, Hubei Province. Also known as Coronavirus Infectious
Disease-19 (COVID-19), it is a highly contagious human disease that causes
severe respiratory infection, leading to death. It initially struck China and
countries in the Asia-Pacific Region. Subsequently, it spread throughout the
world, achieving pandemic level in March 2020, according to an announcement by
the United Nations. In addition to the loss of human life, the pandemic has
resulted in increased economic losses globally (MARTY; JONES, 2020).

The COVID-19 pandemic demonstrated food supply
chains’ vulnerability in the face of zoonoses by creating a health crisis with
great economic scope in numerous countries around the world. Actions to prevent
zoonoses from returning by making changes in agri-food systems are needed. Food
security and food safety have become key issues due to the risk of food
insecurity in terms of supplies and health.

Understanding institutions’ role in preventing
disruptions of food supply chains as well as food safety issues are important.
This study was guided by the following question: How could Brazil contribute to
reducing COVID-19 pandemic related uncertainties by way of its institutions?

We intend to demonstrate that food security
must be integrated with food safety. In other words, we must think about food
safety not only in terms of quantity, but also of food quality regarding
nutrition and health. The concept of “One Health” in food supply chains
presents itself as an opportunity for entrepreneurs, since it offers an
integrated view, considering the inseparability among human, animal, and
environmental health.

This study’s objective was to analyze
institutions’ role in positioning Brazil to reduce uncertainties in food
supplies related to COVID-19. We intend to demonstrate that food security must
be integrated with food safety. In other words, it is necessary to think about
food safety not only in terms of quantity, but also in relation to nutrition
and health.

2 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Food security and food safety are inextricably
linked. Food safety refers to ensuring food quality from handling and
preparation to consumption. Food security involves guaranteeing people access
to food in appropriate and nutritional quantities.

Food safety is a typical situation of information
asymmetry, given that consumers will rarely have reliable information about the
production process or knowledge of possible contaminants. This asymmetry
represents a “market failure”, suggesting Government interference, regulating
operations and consumer protection (ZYLBERSZTAJN, 2000).

2.1 Food Security and Food Safety

Food security is assessed by two basic elements
in relation to access to food, namely economic and physical. Economic access
indicates whether people have the financial resources to buy food or not.
Physical access, on the other hand, shows whether people find enough food at
their disposal. Thus, the COVID-19 crisis can cause a food crisis due to issues
associated with physical and economic accessibility (HOSSIAN, 2020).

Brazil occupies 39th place in the Global Food
Security Index (GFSI), which evaluates 113 countries using 34 indicators that
consider three criteria, namely: affordability, availability, and quality and
safety. This position indicates that Brazil performs well (THE ECONOMIST, 2020)
(Figure 1).

Figure 1 – The Global Food Security Index (GFSI)

Source: The Economist,
2020.

The GFSI was established in 1996 at the Word
Food Summit. It defines Food Security as a state in which all people simultaneously
have physical, social, and economic access. Brazil's position rises to 43rd.
when these requirements are adjusted for natural resources and resilience
(Figure 2).

As for
Brazil’s position in each item with and without adjustments, respectively, the
following is observed: affordability 43th/77th, availability 58th/58.8th, and
quality and safety 14th/84th. This index points out Public
expenditures on agricultural R&D and Gross domestic product per capita (US
$ PPP) as being a challenge. In terms of availability, the issue of corruption
and agricultural infrastructure is also a challenge (THE ECONOMIST, 2020).

Figure 2 – Impact of GFSI's natural resources & resilience category

Source: The Economist,
2020.

Finally, the field of studies on COVID-19’s impact on supply chains has
received increasing interest among academics, being applicable in several areas
of knowledge, such as supply chain reliability (RAJEEV, et al., 2020),
global supply chains (Ivanov, 2020), economics and supply chain (AGRAWAL;
JAMWAL; GUPTA, 2020), and resilience in supply chains (HOBBS, 2020; MUSSEL;
BILYEA; HEDLEY, 2020), among others.

2.2 Theoretical Map of Studies of Agri-food
Systems

Williamson (2000) proposes levels of analysis to study economic organizations
that overlap because they are interrelated. The first level is composed of
informal institutions, customs, and traditions. Its object of analysis focuses
on the formation of a rooted social structure, in which evolution takes place
from a hundred to a thousand years. The concept of embeddedness is found at
this level, with contributions from Granovetter
(1985).

The second level is composed of the institutional environment. At this
level, formal institutions are the object of analysis. They are treated as the
rules of the game, as seen by Douglas North (1990), and their evolution takes
between ten years and a century.

The third level is composed of
governance, where the characteristics of transactions between economic agents
are analyzed. At this level, the object of analysis is focused on the
governance structure, whose evolution occurs over 1 to 10 years, as seen in Oliver
Williamson's study (1985, 1996).

The fourth level represent economic organizations at their lowest level
and characterized by continuous evolution. At this level we see the
contributions of neoclassical economic theory/agency theory.

This paper uses concepts of New Institutional Economics - NIE (COASE,
1937; WILLIAMSON, 1985; NORTH, 1990) as a backdrop, widely disseminated as they
are in literature about agribusiness system coordination.

According to Zylbersztajn (1995), the concepts
of NIE opened room for development of the study of agribusiness systems
coordination, presenting the theory’s relevance and wide range. The concepts of
NIE opened the possibility studying the institutional environment that affects
the mechanisms of governance, enriching the debate among business management
and economics, and its application to agri-food systems.

Research on the role of institutions in world economic growth increased,
where business associations make up a significant proportion of this research.
In fact, research on institutions’ role in economic growth has begun to
emphasize business associations’ activities.
Studies from a variety of perspectives have shown ways in which
associations in a wide variety of contexts have improved economic performance
in developing countries (DONER; SCHNEIDER, 2000).

According to North (1994), institutions are the “rule of the game” while
organizations and entrepreneurs are the “players”. So, when combined into
business associations, organizations start to develop a pressure power and,
consequently, to influence changes in the institutional environment (Barra
& Machado, 2014).

If institutions are the “rules of the game” and organizations are the
“players” (North, 1994), we can view a Business Association as a “coach” and Government
as the “judge” or “referee” with the role of regulating on behalf of the
“game’s” quality. As a result, there will be limits on the strategies of firms,
as virtuous business practices will be encouraged. It will be up to the
association to exercise the role of “coach” guiding growers and their practices
from a fair-trade perspective.

In Brazil, the change in the institutional environment has been one of
the fomenters of transformations in business associations. Many entities that
once acted as mere interlocutors with the government have broadened their scope
of performance, adopting a fresh and proactive management concept. They have
also improved their contribution to the process of coordinating Agribusiness
Systems - Agent of Coordination (BARRA; MACHADO, 2014).

Based on the discussions in this section, we devised a conceptual
framework of analysis for an empirical and synthesized study, according to
Figure 3.

Figure 3 – Theoretical map of
agri-food systems studies

Agent of

Coordination

Agent of

Coordination

Source: Authors.

3 METHODOLOGY

This research is an exploratory study of the
effects of COVID-19 on food systems using qualitative data.

In data collection, bibliographic and
documentary analysis techniques were used. Bibliographic research was based on
academic literature and theoretical references previously analyzed and
published in articles indexed in national and international journals about the
COVID-19 pandemic and food safety. For this research, electronic academic
platforms were used, in which the terms "COVID-19", "food
security", "food safety", "pandemic", and “one health”
were searched.

For documentary analysis, research was conducted,
oriented by world level entities of the sector related to the health, economic,
and food areas, as well as statistics reported by governmental and
non-governmental bodies.

To understand the evolution of COVID-19 in
Brazil’s agri-food sector, historical documents were analyzed. Journalistic
data was selected between December 2019 and December 2020 from the major
newspapers in the field of economics: “O Estado de São Paulo“ and “Valor Econômico”. Data collection was carried out using keywords
previously defined after intense bibliographic research on the topic. Based on
this set of documents, reports were selected for citation to build the scenario
for the impact of COVID-19 on the agri-food system,

3 FINDINGS

Data from the United Nation’s Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Bank, and the World Health
Organization (WHO) on the impact ofCOVID-19 shows the risk of a worldwide food
crisis. Uncertainties about food availability can lead to restrictions on
trade, challenging international regulatory bodies. In addition to the food
supply problem, the pandemic highlights food security. Health crises, like “mad
cow disease”, have had significant impacts on food supply chains (SAES, 2020).
With the COVID-19 pandemics continued negative economic effects, the FAO Food
Price Index has been on a downward trend for 4 consecutive months (Figure 4).
The latest drop in May reflects falling values of all the sub-indices except
for sugar, which rose for the first time in 3 months (FAO, 2020). Figure 5
depicts FAO Food Price Index in nominal and real terms.

Figure 4 – FAO Food Price Index (FFPI)

Source: FAO (2020).

Figure 5 – FAO Food Price Index in nominal and real terms

Source: FAO (2020).

There is a new paradigm for food value chains
related mainly to health and sustainability factors. In it, efficiency and the
conscious use of resources are essential issues for competitiveness.

The COVID-19 pandemic exposed and accentuated
food insecurity by challenging the competent authorities and those responsible
for national and food safety control systems to come up with solutions for this
pandemic and to prevent others from occurring. The pressure exerted on food
supply chains has also been observed. Thus, commitment to food security and
nutrition in agri-food chains is required

The COVID-19 pandemic will intensify the
adoption of technical, sanitary, and phytosanitary standards related to food
security. It has been recognized that the United Nations' Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) should consider food production, climate change
mitigation, biodiversity conservation, and public health in conjunction (SAES,
2020).

Table 1 presents the study's perception of the
importance of public policies in preventing new pandemics.

Table 1 - Public policy in Brazil

Public policy

A4

This crisis requires,
therefore, public policies that manage the difficult trade-off between health
risks and socio-economic risks, with their respective measures and adjustments  (JANK,
2020).

Public policy

A5

In this moment of crisis,
it is important to guarantee the sustainability of Brazil’s system of
agricultural research and innovation system (VALETIN, 2020).

Research and innovation system

A1

Each society will seek
appropriate responses to its environment. Those that have built strong institutions
and that understand the nation as a common project among citizens will be in
a better position to overcome problems (ZYLBERSZTAJN, 2020).

Strong institutions

A6

Public policies that
prioritize supply and financing centres for family farmers, such as PRONAF,
are currently important in making the supply of fruits and vegetables viable (SAES,
2020).

Public policy

Source: Authors (2022).

Brazil was surprised by China's decision to
stop importing meat from Brazilian slaughterhouses on the grounds of health
restrictions despite the lack of scientific evidence of Covid-19 transmission
through fresh or processed food. It is feared that diplomatic problems may have
negative repercussions on Brazil and China’s commercial relationship. Beijing has
also suspended meat imports from units in countries such as the United Kingdom,
the Netherlands, the USA, Canada, and Australia (VALOR, 2020b). China has
increased the rigor and number of inspections of food shipments to avoid a
second wave of coronavirus causing a delay in the flow at ports; it is
estimated that the time a container is not being used for transportation
purposes has increased by 25%, as a result of being in use and cooling the load
(VALOR, 2020c). It is important to note that the participation of Brazilian
meat in Chinese consumption is 9%, while 10.5% of Brazilian meat is absorbed by
China. Therefore, Brazilian slaughterhouses are notably dependent on Chinese
meat consumption (VALOR, 2020d).

As a result of the challenges posed by the
COVID-19 pandemic, Asia-Pacific countries have implemented public policies
emphasizing the need for critical agricultural inputs to meet seasonal crop
schedules (HOSSAIN, 2020). The Chinese government has a special budget for
recovering and revitalizing the agriculture sector, including an Agricultural
Relief Loan and policies to expand e-commerce and export marketing in the
agri-food sector. Furthermore, the Chinese government also provides
agricultural product export incentives and award benchmarks for 15 agricultural
products. There has been a push to increase consumption of agricultural
products through corporate group purchases and farmers’ markets, encouraging an
increase in the variety of grains, increasing the shelf life of vegetables and
fruits, and improved transportation efficiency (HOSSAIN, 2020).

Public policies in countries have been aimed at
granting explicit or disguised subsidies in countries like New Zealand, Canada,
Australia, the USA, Japan, India, France, Italy, and Austria. Australia and New
Zealand have subsidized flights for the export of higher added value products.
Japan, on the other hand, has created consumption incentives for wagyu beef in
relation to meat from other countries. After COVID, the USA has awarded
subsidies to farmers who had already received subsidies due to the trade war
with China. The WTO has been concerned with questions about increased
stockpiles in countries with the justification of food security, as well as the
return of the flow of food stockpile disposal when international trade
normalizes. Also, concerns about restrictions on or banning agricultural
exports of grains and vegetables by countries like Cambodia, Egypt, El
Salvador, Romania, Honduras, Kazakhstan, Myanmar, Russia, Turkey, Vietnam,
Kyrgyzstan, North Macedonia, Thailand, and Ukraine (VALOR, 2020a).

Table 2 presents the study's perception of the
importance of control to prevent new pandemics.

Table 2 – Control in Agri-food systems

Control in the Agri-food systems

A2

1) the creation and
maintenance of cold chains from the slaughter of animals to food final preparation;
and

2) the producer-processor
“vertical integration” model (JANK, 2020).

Cold chains

Vertical Integration

A3

This pandemic has shown
that sanitary standards in the world are below what is needed, and sanitary
standards of control will certainly be increased. To that end, Brazil has a
very developed and efficient model and can show the world an enviable
sanitary system, especially in the meat and food industries (RODRIGUES, 2020).

Sanitary control

Source: Authors (2022).

5. DISCUSSION

This study demonstrates that public and private
policies carried out at international level are needed to avoid new health
crises originated by zoonoses. The integration of public and private policies
requires the following strategies: strengthening the agricultural research and
innovation system, building strong institutions, strict sanitary control laws,
public policies for sustainable agriculture, enhancing cold chains of animal
protein production, and encouraging the vertical integration model in animal
protein chains.

Agri-food systems need to be coordinated.
Coordination can be carried out through collective actions of business
associations. Theses are organizations that can act
as a coordinating agent that provides confidence using social capital. The role
of business associations in coordinating agri-food systems has become more and
more common. Business associations can take responsibility for food safety in
the agri-food systems.

It is up to Brazil to implement public policies
that favor food systems. It is necessary to value the research and innovation
system related to the agri-food sector. Governments, through bodies such as research
centers, universities, technical assistance, and rural extension programs can
support the global competitiveness of such arrangements. Entities linked to the
Brazilian government, like EMBRAPA, for example, began playing the role of
creating a space for innovation in agribusiness.

It has been observed in Brazil that there are
increasing investment initiatives in technologies that are less aggressive to
the environment, such as the development of expertise in production
technologies using fewer chemicals and more organic and natural products. These
initiatives arise from companies or rural producers, with the help of
certification authorities and public institutions. With the COVID-19 pandemic,
the issue of food security will lead to adopting good agricultural practices,
in which information control and traceability will become even more essential
(SAES, 2020).

Brazil’s agricultural structure has many
producers located in the green belts of areas supplying urban zones. Public
policies that prioritize supplies and financing for family farmers are
important in making the food supply viable. Conditions to guarantee food
security in cities will be possible through public policies (SAES, 2020).

Finally, it is necessary to value agri-food
systems that have sanitary control involving systemic health from the initial
supplier to the final consumer. Therefore, it is necessary to follow the code
of conduct of sanitary control laws in terms of productive practices compatible
with the demands of the buyer´s market, as well as the demands for food safety,
sustainability, quality, and traceability.

6 CONCLUSION

The objective of this study  was to analyze the role of institutions in
positioning Brazil to reduce uncertainties in food supplies related to
COVID-19. We intend to demonstrate that food security must be integrated with
food safety.

Based on the New Institutional Economics, we
understand that the institutional support provided by the government and by
business associations in the agri-food system is an important element in
supporting competitivity. These organizations help develop trust among members,
lessen asymmetry of information, and reduce transaction costs.

This study demonstrates that public and private
policies implemented at the international level are needed to avoid new health
crises originated by zoonoses. In this scenario, the integration of public and
private policies requires the following strategies: building strong
institutions, strengthening the agricultural research and innovation system, public
policies for sustainable agriculture, strict sanitary control laws, enhancing
cold chains of animal protein production, and encouraging the vertical
integration model in animal protein chains.

The use of this set of policies can contribute
positively to the One Health concept, providing improved conditions for food
security and food safety. This analytical scheme can be applied in the context
of agro-industrial systems from an institutional perspective, allowing research
into the effect of crises on agri-food supply chains, as in the case of the
COVID-19 pandemic, as well as contributing to its prevention.

We understand that food security and the safety
of food are inextricably linked, becoming key issues due to the risk of food
insecurity in terms of supplies and health. This research has attempted to
discuss the role of institutions  in
Brazil's position on reducing uncertainties related to COVID-19.

Finally, analysis of this data set made it
possible to outline scenarios and present discussion of possible actions to
avoid new crises. It was found that demands to prevent new pandemics are an
outgrowth of the effective adoption of standard sanitary controls, coordination
of agri-food systems, and public policies.

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