New clues on contamination and perceived quality of
second-hand products

Novas pistas sobre
contaminação e qualidade percebida de produtos usados

Júlio César da
Costa Júnior

http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8021-4989

Doutorando em
Administração (UFPE). Universidade Federal de Pernambuco (UFPE) – Brasil. [email-masked]

Leandro da Silva Nascimento

http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0981-1718

Doutorando em Administração (UFRGS). Universidade
Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) – Brasil. [email-masked]

Roberta Vanessa Aragão Félix da Silva

http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3056-6980

Mestre em Administração (UFPE).
Universidade Federal de Pernambuco (UFPE) – Brasil. [email-masked]

Taciana de Barros Jerônimo

http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1643-3030

Doutora em Engenharia de Produção (UFPE). Professora
do Programa de Pós-graduação em Administração (UFPE). Universidade Federal de
Pernambuco (UFPE) – Brasil. [email-masked]

Francisco
Vicente Sales Melo

http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0329-668X

Doutor em Administração (UFPE). Professor da
Escola de Administração (UFC). Universidade Federal do Ceará (UFC) – Brasil. [email-masked]

Marcos André Mendes Primo

http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8126-9252

PhD em Gestão da Cadeia de Suprimentos (Arizona
State University, EUA).
Professor do Departamento de Ciências Administrativas (UFPE). Universidade
Federal de Pernambuco (UFPE) – Brasil. [email-masked]

ABSTRACT

This study investigates if
contamination perception of personal second-hand products by the previous owner
can be used as a clue by consumers to evaluate its perceived quality. Data were
collected through an electronic survey with 332 Brazilian consumers.
Descriptive, correlational, one-way ANOVA and General Linear Model tests were
performed to analyze the data. The findings confirm that contamination
perception can alter the perceived quality of second-hand products and,
therefore, be considered an extrinsic clue. However, this relation can be
moderated by other factors such as socioeconomic condition, value consciousness
and the source-subject of contamination. Although the purchasing of second-hand
products is becoming more popular, few studies aim to understand how consumers
evaluate the perceived quality of these items.

Keywords: Contamination perception. Perceived quality. Sustainable consumption.
Used product. Consumer behavior.

RESUMO

Este estudo
investiga se a percepção de contaminação de produtos pessoais de segunda mão, usados
pelo proprietário anterior, pode ser usada como uma pista pelos consumidores na
avaliação de sua qualidade percebida. Os dados foram coletados por meio de
pesquisa eletrônica com 332 consumidores brasileiros. Testes descritivos,
correlacionais, ANOVA e Modelo Linear Geral foram realizados para analisar os
dados. Os resultados confirmam que a percepção de contaminação pode alterar a
qualidade percebida de produtos usados e, portanto, ser considerada uma pista
extrínseca. No entanto, essa relação pode ser moderada por outros fatores como
condição socioeconômica, consciência de valor e o sujeito-fonte da
contaminação. Embora a compra de produtos usados esteja se popularizando,
poucos estudos buscam compreender como consumidores avaliam a qualidade
percebida desses itens.

Palavras-chave:
Percepção de contaminação. Qualidade percebida. Consumo sustentável. Produtos
usados. Comportamento do consumidor.

Recebido
em 03/02/2021.  Aprovado em 24/03/2021.
Avaliado pelo sistema double blind peer review. Publicado conforme normas da APA.

https://doi.org/10.22279/navus.2021.v11.p01-14.1529

1 INTRODUCTION

Perceived quality regards the consumer’s
general evaluation of a good or service through clues or information (Olson
& Jacoby, 1972; Yan, Xiaojun, & Dong, 2019;
Zeithaml, 1988). Some of these clues are inherent or ‘intrinsic’ to the
products, such as physical attributes (Han & Kwon, 2009). However, more generic and ‘extrinsic’ clues could also change consumers'
perception and influence purchasing propensity (Yan et al., 2019). ‘Disgust’,
for example, is a human emotion associated with aversion or rejection (Fink, Pflugradt, Stierle, & Exner,
2018; Rozin, Haidt, & McCauley, 2008). One
dimension of this phenomenon is connected to touch by human beings (Haidt,
McCauley, & Rozin, 1994; Rozin
et al., 2008). Physical contact between people and objects can trigger
‘disgust’ and influence the general evaluation of these items (Argo, Dahl,
& Morales, 2006, 2008; Huang, Ackerman, & Newman, 2008; Morales, Dahl,
& Argo, 2018; Guido, Pino & Peluso, 2018), which might decrease
purchasing propensity, as in the case of second-hand products (Costa Jr.,
Carvalho Filho, Jerônimo & Melo, 2019).

However, this influence is not restricted only
to perceived quality and may also impact trade-off evaluation between costs and
benefits incurred on a purchase based on the perceived value (Biswas & Roy,
2015; García-Fernández et al., 2018). This construct, wider, is also influenced
by other elements, such as the price of the item and consumer’s purchasing
power (Gallarza, Sil-Saura,
Holbrook, 2011; García-Fernández, Gálvez-Ruíz,
Fernández-Gavira, Vélez-Colón,
Pitts, & Bernal-Gracía, 2018). Understanding the
dynamics of these variables is relevant to second-hand items market, which has
stood out due to a higher consumer search for maximizing investment usefulness
(Biswas & Roy, 2015; Papagiannidis, Bourlakis, Alamanos, & Dennis,
2017). The expectation for lower prices may increase perceived usefulness for
this purchase mode (Yan, Bae, & Xu, 2015). Nevertheless, there is still a
stigma attached to the purchasing of second-hand items, seen as some ‘disgust’
(Guido et al., 2018) and normally associated with poorer consumers (Watson,
2008; Williams, 2002).

This study proposes to investigate if the
contamination perception of objects by the previous owner alters the perceived
quality of a second-hand product. Based on an electronic survey with 332
Brazilian consumers, it was identified that people consider the contamination a
real phenomenon and their quality perception of the used goods influenced by
the way they see the older owner. This becomes relevant to the advances in
research. With the facilities provided by the internet and the growing
popularity of safe sites for buying and selling used products, second-hand
markets have evolved into the digital age (Belk, 2013b; Liang & Liang,
2014). We should also consider the changing consumer behavior regarding
conscious consumption, which can help these companies or others that work with
reprocessed products to target better their marketing strategy to resolve the
negative effects of perceived contamination on used products (Elliott, 2013;
Yan et al., 2015). Finally, underlying these observations that can increase
current research, is the consumer's assumption as a value maximizer, that is,
they want to get the best out of their belongings even after they no longer
wish to use the good, with the sale or exchange (Biswas & Roy, 2015). Therefore,
understanding how contamination perception relates to the perceived quality of
a used product becomes the key for companies in the sector and consumers to
unlock the subjective barriers in this promising market (Yan et al., 2015;
Liang & Liang, 2014); which is something that can be improved through this
research findings.

Besides all that related contributions and
implications, due to other dimensions that interact with perceived quality to
value formation, other possible moderator effects of the price consciousness,
value consciousness and consumer’s income were also tested on the relation
between contamination perception and perceived quality of second-hand products.
Thus, implications of the findings for both consumers of used products and
companies operating in this market segment are indicated.

2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This section begins with a brief discussion of
the main theoretical constructs that support this research. Initially,
contamination is addressed from an anthropological perspective. The following
are discussed: perceived quality, perceived usefulness, and propensity to
purchase. Finally, based on the articulation between constructs, the formulated
hypotheses are presented.

2.1 Using and ‘contaminating’ objects

‘Disgust’ is a human emotion characterized by
repulsiveness and aversion to possible contamination sources (Fink et al.,
2018, p. 36; Argo et al., 2008; Guido et al., 2018, p. 105).  The stimulus of this type can trigger or
awaken strong cognitive and behavioral answers that vary from a feeling of
discomfort to total rejection of the contagion target (Guido et al., 2018; Rozin et al., 2008). Many dimensions of ‘disgust’ were
identified and grouped in meta-dimensions by common attributes relative to the
trigger of this emotion (Guido et al., 2018). One of them is ‘improbable
contamination’, the focus of this research, that analyses how physical contact
of an item with other objects and people changes how a person reacts to it
(Guido et al., 2018; Haidt et al., 1994). This is the case of ‘interpersonal
disgust’, related to the personal use of objects by unknown or undesirable
people (Guido et al., 2018; Huang et al., 2017; Rozin
& Nemeroff, 1990).

Anthropological studies have already
encountered the ‘Laws of Sympathetic Magic’ (Mauss
& Hubert, 2003; Rozin et al., 1986) and the ‘Law
of Contagion’ (Meigs, 1984). Both perspectives corroborate the idea that a
‘target-object’ will continue to be influenced by a ‘source-subject’ even after
discontinued physical contact (Meigs, 1984; Rozin
& Nemeroff, 1990). A person, ‘magically’,
transfers his/her personal properties to the target by touch (Mauss & Hubert, 2003; Rozin
et al., 1986; Morales et al., 2018). Perspectives in other fields of study,
such as consumer behavior, also suggest a strong link between a person and
his/her belongings, which are considered part of their ‘extended self’ (Belk,
1988, 2013a).

The physical contact of objects with people by
touch, therefore, can trigger ‘disgust’ and influence negatively purchasing
intention (Huang et al., 2017; Guido et al., 2018; Yan et al., 2015). The mere
suspicion of manipulation by other people tends to trigger rejection to a
product, even new ones (Argo et al., 2006; 2008; Morales et al., 2018). When it
comes to second-hand products, there is evidence that contamination perception
reduces purchasing propensity, but it can be associated to the way how the
agent of contagion is seen (Costa et al., 2019; Huang et al., 2017).
Contamination by undesirable people is omnipresent (Inozu,
Eremsoy, Cicek, & Ozcanli, 2017; Rozin et al.,
2008; Siegal, Fadda, & Overton, 2011). However,
the positive feeling towards the vector of contagion, such as famous people,
relatives, and friends, can have an opposite effect (Costa et al., 2019; Belk,
1988, 2013a; Ago et al., 2008).

‘Disgust’ and contamination perception by a
source-subject, therefore, influences consumers behavior: it might alter their
general evaluation and purchasing propensity (Costa et al., 2019; Guido et al.,
2018; Inozu et al., 2017; Rozin
et al., 2008; Huang et al., 2017; Morales et al., 2018). Hence, it is suggested
a relation between contamination and perceived quality of second-hand products.

2.2 Perceived quality, following clues

Perceived quality concerns consumers' judgment
regarding the general excellence or superiority of a good or service (Zeithaml,
1988, p. 3). It is a concept associated with elevated levels of abstraction of
an individual and that differs from the objective quality, perspective related
to verifiable superiority as to the tangible attributes or predetermined
patterns of a product (Han & Kwon, 2009; Hazen, Boone, Wang, & Khor,
2017). Perceived quality, therefore, can be understood as an attitude, a
consumer’s positioning, and has a strong influence over purchasing decision
(Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1985; Yan et al., 2019).

When working with perceived quality, however,
it is suggested to distinct characteristics and attributes of a product: the
focus on characteristics is usually associated with the possibility of
objective measurement by specific techniques; the term attribute, more common
in studies of consumer behavior, retains a more subjective dimension of the
individual's weighting associated with their needs (Martínez-Carrasco, Brugarolas, Martínez-Proveda,
Ruiz, & García-Martínez, 2012).

The perceived quality evaluation by a consumer,
in general, happens through ‘clues’ about the attributes of an item (Olson
& Jacobe, 1972; Yan et al., 2019). These pieces
of information can be classified as: intrinsic, physical
or inherent characteristics of a product, such as color or texture; and
extrinsic, characteristics related to the product and which, even manipulated,
could not alter the product itself, such as price, brand, image of the company
or country of origin (Martínez-Carrasco et al., 2012; Yan et al., 2019).

Intrinsic clues have a greater influence over
quality perception for products consumers have access to (Han & Kwon, 2009;
Olson & Jacobe, 1972). However, in the case of
items that the individual is less familiar with, the extrinsic clues, more
generic, are the ones who strongly affect the evaluation and purchasing
decision (Han & Kwon, 2009).

While many studies emphasized more tangible or
verifiable extrinsic clues, such as package and price, only a few have focused
on those intangible or subjective aspects (Olson, 2012; Yan et al., 2019).
Thus, there is space for studies to identify other extrinsic and more
subjective clues that influence consumers' purchasing decisions (Olson, 2012;
Yan et al., 2019).

2.3 Trade-offs, perceived usefulness and
purchasing propensity

Perceived value is a general consumer
evaluation of the usefulness of a product based on the trade-off between
perceived costs and benefits in an exchanging relation (García-Fernández et
al., 2018; Han & Kwon, 2009; Zeithaml, 1988, p. 14). It is a more
comprehensive construct that includes, besides perceived quality, other
dimensions such as price perception and value consciousness (Beneke, Flyn, Greig, & Mukaiwa, 2013; Biswas & Roy, 2015; Pitic,
Brad, & Pitic, 2014). Previous research has shown
a positive influence between quality and perceived value (Gallarza
et al., 2011; Pitic et al., 2014). Elements that
alter an individual quality perception can influence the evaluation of the
trade-off related to a product purchasing. Thus, extrinsic clues of quality
(Olson, 2012; Yan et al., 2019) should also reverberate on value perception.

Price also retains a strong relation with
perceived value and is a complex stimulus that affects consumers differently (Beneke et al., 2013; Khare, Achtani, & Khattar, 2014;
Lichtenstein, Ridgway, & Netemeyer, 1993). Prices
can retract or stimulate consumption because they are related to a sense of
risk of loss, especially under a financial bias (Weisstein,
Asgari, & Siew, 2014). A consumer’s price
consciousness can positively or negatively relativize the assessed costs for
their purchasing decision and influence the value perception (Khare et al., 2014).

Economic reasons are recurring in consumer
behavior studies regarding purchasing propensity (Hamari,
Sjöklint, & Ukkonen,
2016; Yan et al., 2015). Purchasing power is another element that leads to a
reflection of alternative forms of consumption: in the expectation of making
the money yield more, lower-income consumers resort to second-hand product
markets (King, 1981; Williams, 2002). However, people start considering these
products as inferior when out of poverty, opting for new ones (Watson, 2008).
Income, thus, can work as another factor to influence consumer’s perceived
usefulness in a trading relationship.

Perceived value is a complex abstraction about
consumer behavior since it involves idiosyncratic elements, such as price and
perceived quality (Gallarza et al., 2011;
García-Fernández et al., 2018; Pitic et al., 2014),
and economic factors, such as purchasing power (Williams, 2002; Yan et al.,
2015). Therefore, the relationship between elements that influence how a
consumer evaluates the trade-offs on trade can make a critical determiner of
purchase intention (Beneke et al., 2013).

2.4 Hypotheses and conceptual model

The confirmation of contamination phenomenon by
contact between people and objects in anthropological research (Mauss & Hubert, 2003; Meigs, 1984; Rozin
et al., 1986; Rozin et al., 2008; Rozin
& Nemeroff, 1990) and the strong link between
people and their possessions suggested in consumer behavior studies (Belk,
1988, 2013a) show the relevance of this phenomenon to second-hand products
market. Since this ‘contagion’ can trigger ‘disgust’ and influence the way
products are evaluated (Argo et al., 2006; Guido et al., 2018), it is possible
to work as a clue for perceived quality (Han & Kwon, 2009; Yan et al.,
2019). Based on this finding, it is proposed that:

Hypothesis 1. Contamination perception can be considered an extrinsic
clue on the evaluation of the perceived quality of a second-hand product.

However, the way the vector of the contagion or
source-subject is seen can alter the effect of contamination, which will not always
be negative, such as the case of family reliques,
celebrity items or artisanal (Costa et al., 2019; Inozu
et al., 2017; Um & Kim, 2016; Yan et al., 2015). This leads us to infer
that:

Hypothesis 2a. A positive perception of the source-subject moderates the
relation between contamination and perceived quality.

Hypothesis 2b. A negative perception of the source-subject moderates the
relation between contamination and perceived quality.

As previously seen, studies relate perceived
quality to a more comprehensive construct, the perceived value, which is also
influenced by other elements such as price and income, to the evaluation of the
usefulness of purchase by the consumer (Gallarza et
al., 2011; García-Fernández et al., 2018; Han & Kwon, 2009; Pitic et al., 2014).
Thus, if there is a joint effect of these variants for the perceived
value, it is relevant to infer that they could have latent relations. For
example, inside the construct perceived quality, the price can be considered an
extrinsic clue evaluated by the consumer (Olson & Jacobe,
1972; Yan et al., 2019). Thus, it is proposed that:

Hypothesis 3a. Price consciousness influences the quality perception of
second-hand items.

Hypothesis 3b. Price consciousness moderates the relation between
contamination perception and perceived quality.

It also corroborates with the evidence that
consumers wish to maximize the amount invested in a purchase (Biswas & Roy,
2015; Papagiannidis et al., 2017). A better
cost-benefit expectation can lead a consumer to disregard aspects that would
usually reduce perceived quality. Therefore, it can be inferred that:

Hypothesis 4a. Value consciousness influences the quality perception of
second-hand items.

Hypothesis 4b. Value consciousness moderates the relation between
contamination perception and perceived quality.

Lastly, it is important to stress that
purchasing power can make people reflect on alternative forms of consumption
and resort to the purchase of second-hand items, usually cheaper, to get more
usefulness (King, 1981; Williams, 2002; Yan et al., 2015).  Based on this finding, it is suggested that:

Hypothesis 5a. Income influences the quality perception of second-hand
items.

Hypothesis 5b. Income moderates the relation between contamination
perception and perceived quality.

The formulated hypotheses are shown in the
proposed conceptual model, represented in Figure 1. The next section presents the
methodological procedures.

Figure 1. Conceptual model

Source: developed by the authors

3 METHOD

This study is a
quantitative descriptive formal, and cross-sectional study whose data
collection was made through an electronic survey (Cooper & Shindler, 2016). The sample, convenience type by
accessibility, is formed by 332 valid respondents (Hair Jr., Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2014). The sample is
composed of Brazilian consumers, and data were gathered in 2017. The collection
instrument was organized in sections that would measure (i)
changes in the perceived quality of second-hand items; (ii) contamination
perception and influence of source-subject; (iii) value consciousness; (iv)
price consciousness; (v) socioeconomic data. The answers were collected on a
Likert-type scale of seven points for all constructs, except for the
socioeconomic data collected through variable ratio (Cooper & Schindler,
2016).

Since they do not
have a validated scale available, the constructs ‘change on the perceived
quality of second-hand items’, ‘contamination’ and ‘influence of the
source-subject’ were measured through variables built based on the literature
and submitted to pre-tests and tests of validation and reliability,
specifically: factor analysis and Cronbach's Alpha (Cooper & Schindler,
2016; Hair et al., 2014). For the constructs value and price consciousness,
instruments already validated were used: ‘Price Perception Scales – Dimension
Value consciousness’ (Lichtenstein et al., 1993); and ‘Price Perception Scales
– Dimension Price Consciousness’ (Lichtenstein et al., 1993).

The reliability and
validation of the scales were analyzed through factor analysis and Cronbach’s
Alpha coefficient (Hair et al., 2014): value consciousness (α= 0,797 (var=
60,653% | KMO= 0,815, Bartlett= 663,212 with 21 g.l.,
p<0,000)); price consciousness (α= 0,827 (var= 60,107% | KMO= 0,828,
Bartlett= 636,750 with 10 g.l., p<0,000));
contamination perception (α= 0,744 (var= 57,257% | KMO= 0,726, Bartlett=
332,954 with 6 g.l., p<0,000)); positive influence
of source-subject (α= 0,587 (var= 71,207% | KMO= 0,500, Bartlett= 65,349
with 1 g.l., p<0,000)).

Data analysis was
made through the software IBM SPSS Statistics version 25. Besides descriptive
and correlational statistical tests, the verification of hypotheses was made through: Pearson’s correlation test to verify the
significance level among the variables because the sample has a normal
distribution; one-way ANOVA, to verify the direct relation among the
constructs; and GLM (General Linear Model) to analyze the occurrence of
moderations (Hair et al., 2009, 2014).

4 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

This section begins with an analysis of the
sample, descriptive data, and some findings of the subjects' perception of the
contamination phenomenon. In the sequence, the hypothesis tests and the
resulting discussions are presented.

4.1 Sampling

Originally, data of 340 respondents was
collected, but after outlier’s treatment, including analysis through the
calculus of Mahalanobis distance (Hair et al., 2014),
8 questionnaires were eliminated. The final 332 samplings are 237 females
(71,4%) and 95 males (28,6%) aged between 18 and 63 years old (average 31 years
old). Other socioeconomic data, family and individual
incomes, have shown a wide variant: monthly family income varying between R$
600,00 and R$ 120.000,00, average R$ 9,048,11; monthly individual income
varying between R$ 0,00 and R$ 70.000,00 and average of R$ 3.115,22.

Descriptive statistical analysis between the
main constructs allows important inferences about the respondents’ positioning
towards the proposed questions. Only 88 of the respondents perceive second-hand
products as inferior and think their purchase is less desirable. For most of
them, 73,5% of the sampling, second-hand products are not necessarily seen as
inferior, contrary to what is suggested in previous studies (King, 1981;
Watson, 2008; Williams, 2002).

Regarding contamination, about 48,2% of
respondents seem to perceive it strongly: to those parcels of the sample, the
contact between people and objects seems to trigger some degree of ‘disgust’ or
aversion (Guido et al., 2018; Rozin et al., 2008;).
This evidence corroborates with researches that have
confirmed the phenomenon of contamination and the relation object-owner (Argo
et al., 2006; Belk, 1988, 2013a; Costa et al., 2019; Guido et al., 2018; Rozin et al., 2008).

It was also verified that 34,6% of respondents positively
perceive the contagion by loved people and that 42,2% have shown higher
repulsion to contagion by undesirable people. This confirms that well-evaluated
individuals can contaminate an object positively (Belk, 1988, 2013a; Costa et
al., 2019; Um & Kim, 2016) and that contagion by undesirable people is a
more generic phenomenon (Inozu et al., 2017; Rozin et al., 2008; Siegal et al., 2011).

Lastly, it was found that 60,5% of the sample
has ‘high value consciousness’, which confirms the assumption of the consumer
as a usefulness maximizer (Biswas & Roy, 2015; Papagiannidis
et al., 2017). As for the price factor and its relevance for purchasing
decision, more than half of respondents, 53,3% of the sample, have shown low
sensibility to this variable, which allows questioning previous studies that
suggest price is a factor of high relevance to consumers decisions (Beneke et al., 2013; Khare et
al., 2014; Lichtenstein et al., 1993).

4.2 Verification of hypotheses

To better investigate, the hypotheses tests and
analyses of their respective results will be presented in the same formulation
order.

4.2.1 Hypothesis 1. Contamination perception can be considered an
extrinsic clue on the evaluation of the perceived quality of a second-hand product

This hypothesis was examined through an average
test between groups based on the variants ‘contamination perception’ and
‘change on the perceived quality of second-hand products’.
From the average of ‘contamination perception’ the subjects were grouped in
individuals with ‘low perception’ and ‘high perception’ of the phenomenon. The
significant one-way ANOVA test (F=4,689; p<0,05) confirms that both
constructs are related (Table 1).

However, even though it was verified that the
average difference of individuals with high and low contagion perception about
the general evaluation of second-hand products is not very high, the
statistical significance allows inferring that those who are more sensitive to
contamination are more concerned with the purchase of second-hand products
(Table 2).

The Pearson correlation test significant
between the analyzed variants (Table 3), even indicating a weak correlation,
also confirmed that the phenomenon is directly related. As the contamination
perception increases, the perceived quality of a second-hand product is altered,
and people begin to find problems with their purchase. Data also confirms that
most of the people who have high contamination perception did not buy
second-hand products (Table 4). At the same time, most of those who have
already purchased a second-hand item have low contamination perception.

Thus, data confirm the hypothesis and
corroborate the findings suggesting that contamination perception can influence
the general evaluation of a consumer about the source-object of contagion (Argo
et al., 2006; Guido et al., 2018), and this can influence on purchase decision
(Argo et al., 2006; Costa et al., 2019; Han & Kwon, 2009).

Hypothesis

Between Groups

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

Hypothesis 1

‘contamination perception’ and ‘change on the perceived quality’

5,897

1

5,897

4,689

0,03

Hypothesis 2a

‘change on the perceived quality of second-hand product’ and ‘positive
perception of the source-subject’

6,688

1

6,688

5,329

0,02

Hypothesis 2b

‘contamination perception’ and ‘negative perception of the
source-subject’

19,845

1

19,845

8,875

0

Hypothesis 3a

‘change on the perceived quality of second-hand product’ and ‘price
consciousness’

2,833

1

2,833

2,236

0,14

Hypothesis 4a

‘change on the perceived quality of second-hand product’ and ‘value
consciousness’

13,841

1

13,841

11,22

0

Hypothesis 5a

‘family income’ and ‘change on the perceived quality of second-hand
product’

13,291

4

3,323

2,666

0,03

Hypothesis 5a

‘individual income’ and ‘change on the perceived quality of
second-hand product’

21,304

3

7,101

5,829

0

Table 1. One-way ANOVA

Source: developed by the authors

N

Average

Standard Deviation

Standard Error

Reliability gap of 95% for the average

Minimum

Maximum

Lower limit

Upper limit

Low perception

172

1,39

0,982

0,075

1,24

1,54

1

7

High perception

160

1,66

1,254

0,099

1,46

1,85

1

7

Total

332

1,52

1,128

0,062

1,4

1,64

1

7

Table
2. Difference of averages of ‘change on the
perceived quality of  second-hand
products’ according to ‘contamination perception’

Source: developed by the authors

Hypothesis

Origin

N

Sig. (2-tailed)

Pearson's Correlation

Hypothesis 1

Change in the evaluation of used
products*Dichotomous contamination perception

332

0,031

,118*

Hypothesis 4a

Change in the evaluation of used
products*Value Consciousness

332

0

-,200**

Hypothesis 5a

Change in the evaluation of used
products*Family income (Categorized)

332

0,042

,112*

Hypothesis 5a

Change in the evaluation of used
products*Individual income (Categorized)

332

0,031

,118*

Table 3. Correlation between variables

Source: developed by the authors

Dichotomous contamination perception

Total

Low perception

High perception

Have you ever bought a used product?

No, I haven’t.

74

136

210

Have you ever bought a used product?

Yes, I have.

98

24

122

Total

172

160

332

Table 4. Crosstab ‘second-hand
products purchase’ and ‘contamination perception’

Source: developed by the authors

4.2.2 Hypothesis 2a. A positive perception of the source-subject
moderates the relation between contamination and perceived quality

Moderating variables can alter the strength or way of
the relation between two constructs (Cooper & Schindler, 2016; Hair et al.
2009). In order to test the finding of the way an
individual evaluates a source-subject of contamination can influence the
evaluation of the source-target (Costa et al., 2019; Um & Kim, 2016; Yan et
al., 2015) and, therefore, moderate the relation between ‘contagion perception’
and ‘change of the perceived quality’ of an item, GLM (General Linear Model)
was used. The results (F= 3,030; p<0,05), Table 5, confirm the formulated
hypothesis.

The one-way ANOVA test (Table 1) between ‘positive
perception of the source-subject’ and ‘change of the perceived quality of
second-hand items’ also shows a relation between these two constructs (F=
5,329; p<0,05).

Hypothesis

Origin

Type III Sum of Squares

gl

Mean Square

F

Sig.

Hypothesis 2a

Dichotomous contamination perception*

Positive perception of the source-subject

Hypothesis

21,38

6

3,563

3,03

0,007

Error

374,011

318

1,176d

Hypothesis 2b

Dichotomous contamination perception*

Negative perception of the source-subject

Hypothesis

22,03

6

3,672

3,072

0,006

Error

380,041

318

1,195d

Hypothesis 3b

Dichotomous contamination perception*

Price consciousness

Hypothesis

12,84

5

2,568

2,104

0,065

Error

389,39

319

1,221d

Hypothesis 4b

Dichotomous contamination perception*

Value consciousness

Hypothesis

16,286

5

3,257

2,938

0,013

Error

353,599

319

1,108d

Hypothesis 5b

Dichotomous contamination perception*

Family income

Hypothesis

46,406

23

2,018

1,656

0,034

Error

286,326

235

1,218d

Hypothesis 5b

Dichotomous contamination perception*

Individual income

Hypothesis

59,201

24

2,467

2,368

0,001

Error

253,079

243

1,041d

Table 5. Moderating effect
between variables

Source: developed by the authors

4.2.3 Hypothesis 2b. A negative perception of the source-subject
moderates the relation between contamination and perceived quality

Based on the same theoretical assumptions that
sustain ‘Hypothesis 2a’, it was sought to confirm some effects of the negative
perception of the source-subject on the relation between perceived quality and
contamination. The GLM test (F= 3,072; p<0,05), Table 5, confirms the
moderation and the analyzed hypothesis.

The one-way ANOVA test shows averages differences
statistically significant (F= 8,875; p<0,05) between the ‘negative
perception of the source-subject of contagion’ and ‘contamination perception’
(Table 1). This finding supports the hypothesis and confirms the assumption
that the contagion by undesirable people is more generic, universal (Inozu et al., 2017; Rozin et al.,
2008; Siegal et al., 2011).

4.2.4 Hypothesis 3a. Price consciousness
influences the quality perception of second-hand items

Since price is an element used as an extrinsic clue
to the evaluation of perceived quality by the individual (Pitic
et al., 2014; Yan et al., 2019), it was deduced that consumers’ concern with
prices, or price consciousness, should influence the perceived quality of
second-hand items. However, against previous studies (Beneke
et al., 2013; Williams, 2002; Yan et al., 2015), the one-way ANOVA test does
not show a statistically significant relation (F= 2,236; p>0,05) between the
average differences of the two constructs (Table 1). Thus, this hypothesis is
denied.

4.2.5 Hypothesis 3b. Price consciousness
moderates the relation between contamination perception and perceived quality

Based on the assumption that second-hand
items have a lower price (King, 1981; Yan et al., 2015), a greater consumer
concern with the price could moderate the relation between ‘contamination
perception’ and ‘change on the perceived quality of a second-hand item’. In
other words, the lower price could relativize the effects of contamination
perception on the evaluation of a product. However, the GLM test (F= 2,104;
p>0,05), Table 5, shows that the variable ‘price consciousness’ does not
have a statistically significant influence over the main relation
‘contamination perception’ and ‘change on the perceived quality’.

4.2.6 Hypothesis 4a. Value
consciousness influences the quality perception of second-hand items

The confirmation that there is a dynamic
interaction between the elements used by consumers to abstract about the
perceived value on an exchange relation led to the questioning of a possible
direct relationship between these elements. This is the case of the relation
between ‘value consciousness’ and ‘change on the perceived quality of
second-hand items’, hypothesis confirmed by one-way ANOVA test (F= 11,221;
p<0,05), Table 1.

The Pearson’s correlation coefficient (Table 3)
also supports the acceptance of the hypothesis due to the negative correlation
between the constructs: the higher value consciousness implies in a lower
change of quality perception of a second-hand item and, therefore, that the
item is considered inferior.

4.2.7 Hypothesis 4b. Value consciousness moderates the relation between
contamination perception and perceived quality

Based on the assumption of the consumer as a
maximizer of usefulness (Biswas & Roy, 2015), it is supposed that the
relation between ‘contamination perception’ and ‘change on the perceived
quality of a second-hand item’ can be moderated by ‘value consciousness’. The
statistically significant GLM test (F= 2,938; p<0,05) between these variables,
Table 5, confirms the hypothesis and previous studies in which its formulation
was based (Biswas & Roy, 2015; García-Fernández et al., 2018; Papagiannidis et al., 2017; Pitic
et al., 2014).

4.2.8 Hypothesis 5a. Income
influences the quality perception of second-hand items

Based on the assumption that the purchase of
second-hand items is associated to people with low purchasing power (King,
2008; Watson, 2008; William, 2002; Yan et al., 2015), it was analyzed, through
individual and family incomes, if the socioeconomic status influences the
change on perceived quality of second-hand items. The one-way ANOVA tests
between the variable ‘change on the perceived quality’ and the variables
‘family income’ (F= 2,666; p<0,05) and ‘individual income’ (F= 5,829;
p<0,05), both categorized in groups from the average, confirmed the
formulated hypothesis (Table 1).

The statistically significant correlation
between individual and family incomes and the variable ‘change on the perceived
quality’ suggests that individuals with high income apparently see second-hand
items as lower quality (Table 3). However, the highest concentration of
subjects whose quality of second-hand products is altered and perceived as
inferior does not occur in higher income ranges.

4.2.9 Hypothesis 5b. Income
moderates the relation between contamination perception and perceived quality

Due to the perspective that the socioeconomic
status alters the perceived quality of second-hand items (Hypothesis 5a) and
the assumption that low incomes can relativize the evaluations of certain
attributes of a product (William, 2002; Watson, 2008), the relation between
contamination perception and change on the quality of second-hand items is
moderated by family and individual incomes was tested. The GLM tests, Table 5
confirmed that incomes alter the strength or form of the relation between these
two main constructs.

5 CONCLUSIONS

Perceived
quality is a complex abstraction about the general evaluation of a product by a
consumer. This research has shown that there are subjective dimensions that
influence the purchasing decisions in the case of second-hand products. We show
that the contamination perception of a target-object by a source-subject can
alter the perceived quality of a second-hand product and, therefore, can be
considered an extrinsic clue used by consumers for evaluation and purchase
decisions. In doing so, we reach the main objective of this research.

Also,
we highlighted some obstacles to the purchase of second-hand products that go beyond
rationality regarding consumer behavior. An example is the influence of the
evaluation of the former owner image on the contamination perception. Although
this is a finding already considered in the literature, the effects of this on
perceived quality have not been directly addressed statistically and may indicate
new insights for companies that manage sales platforms of used products.

As
a possible action to mitigate negative effects associated with an eventual bad
evaluation of the former owner, our analyses let suggest that such second-hand
products sites should enable communication between sellers and potential
buyers. By emphasizing the subjective side of these relationships, it is
possible to explore the affective value underlying these exchange relationships
due to people's eventual attachment to their goods, and so, overcome the main focus on the utility associated with the purchase of
these products. Also, we believe that it could enhance the buyer’s perception
of value by including him in a broader network of trade relationships.

Another
contribution was the confirmation of factors that influence the perceived
usefulness in a trade relationship could influence one another mutually: this
includes income and value consciousness effects on the perceived quality.
However, contrary to previous research, our findings suggest that the price
seems not to have much relevance to purchasing decision anymore, at least in
second-hand products. Due to this finding, we recommend the focus on this issue
as a theme for future research.

Overall,
our results can be particularly useful for companies operating in the used
product business, such as the popular websites that provide a channel for
people to sell used objects that they no longer use. Aware of the effects of
the perception of contamination for the perceived quality of used products,
advertising actions can be directed to promote an apology for conscious
consumption as a way to resolve its negative effects.
Furthermore, given the urgency for ecological alternatives to the main
production and consumption channels (e.g. Circular
Economy), this evidence can help marketers better understand the obstacles to
lateral product cycling: the purchase and sale of products among consumers. In
this sense, another fruitful path for future research is the integration of
these results with Transformative Consumer Research, which aims to help improve
people's lives as consumers. We believe that this focus can help economically
vulnerable consumers to have a better relationship with their low-price
possibilities of purchase, like second-hand products.

Other
possibilities are related to research on reverse logistics, conscious
consumption, and purchase decision. About logistics, we can explore the
architecture of a “consumer-to-consumer” channel of trade and the active role
of the final consumer to the reentrance of items in the reverse flow of  products after their consumption. Conscious
consumption is another trendy topic in consumer behavior, specifically
regarding the question of contamination perception. Although the positive
attitude of many individuals towards the potential effects of the purchase of used
products over the environment is well known, this concern may not lead to
actual conscious consumption behavior. So, not always the conscious consumption
or even the perception of value in a trade relation will lead to the consumer's
expected purchase decision; this is a complex question that should continue to
be explored in the case of second-hand products.

We
also suggested for future investigations, the complex relationship between
income and quality perception of second-hand items. Our analyses found a
relation between these constructs; however, this partially diverges from
evidence found in the literature that higher aversion and tolerance to
second-hand products are found, respectively, on the extremes of higher and
lower incomes.

Of
course, all these contributions, as said, reverberate directly to
practitioners. In summary: (i) how they explore
subjective aspects in exchange relations to mitigate the negative effects of
contamination; (ii) how to explore the creation of links between used product
buyers and sellers as a means of adding value; (iii) formulation of marketing
strategies that emphasize mitigating aspects of the effects of the perception
of contamination on the perceived quality, such as awareness of value and
awareness of consumption; (iv) create more proactive channels to enable C2C
businesses; (v) situating the final consumer as a potential channel and support
point for reverse logistics, among others.

Finally,
some limitations of this study refer to the convenience type sample and a great
variety of socioeconomic attributes like age and income, which may make it
difficult to identify a significant correlation between these and other
variables; and to the subjectivity inherent to the measured constructs such as
value consciousness, altered perceived quality and contamination perception. In
this sense, future studies may deepen the understanding of contamination and quality perception on purchase of
second-hand products in other countries, because cultural, economic, social,
and political variations may demonstrate results that can be complementary or
contrasting to those presented here.

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